human language chomsky hierarchy

Kurser. The Chomsky hierarchy is an ordering of formal grammars — think syntactic rules for formal languages — such that each grammar exists as a proper subset of the grammars above it in the hierarchy. Our conclusion should not be underestimated, since there are numerous studies that center on the relation between human language and the Chomsky Hierarchy. "Detecting Sarcasm in Text: An Obvious Solution to a Trivial Problem." Found inside – Page 2His naturalistic approach to the study of language has also affected the philosophy of language and mind (see Harman, Fodor). He is also credited with the establishment of the Chomsky–Schützenberger hierarchy, a classification of formal ... A rule may be applied by replacing an occurrence of the symbols on its left-hand side with those that appear on its right-hand side. Speech Within the field of computer science, specifically in the area of programming languages, the Chomsky hierarchy (occasionally referred to as Chomsky-Schützenberger hierarchy) is a containment hierarchy of classes of formal grammars that generate formal languages. A formal grammar of this type consists of a finite set of production rules (left-hand side → right-hand side), where each side consists of a finite sequence of the following symbols: A formal grammar provides an axiom schema for (or generates) a formal language, which is a (usually infinite) set of finite-length sequences of symbols that may be constructed by applying production rules to another sequence of symbols (which initially contains just the start symbol). Type-0: A language with no restrictions is not conducive to communication or automation. We have seen that regular grammars are ac-cepted by FAs, and that CFGs are accepted by PDAs. Every regular language is context-free, every context-free language is context-sensitive, every context-sensitive language is recursive and every recursive language is recursively enumerable. With every level, the grammar becomes less restrictive in rules, but more complicated to automate. Noam Chomsky categorised regular and other languages which called as Chomsky Hierarchy. Found inside – Page 77A Discussion of the Nature of Language, with Implications for Human and Machine Translation Alan K. Melby, ... For example, he defined the Chomsky Hierarchy of different types of formal languages from a finite state grammar (the least ... "Noam Chomsky." Journal of Neurolinguistics, vol. Found inside – Page 284Formal Language Theory : A Brief History Broadly speaking , formal language theory and especially the Chomsky hierarchy served as a rough proxy for particular complexity analyses and structural properties of both programming languages ... In some languages, the meaning might vary depending upon a third factor called context of usage. Accessed 2019-08-2019. It focuses on describing the architecture that allows us, humans, to learn these complex systems easily. See "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously" for a similar example given by Chomsky in 1957; see Phrase structure grammar and Phrase structure rules for more natural language examples and the problems of formal grammar in that area. These languages are exactly all languages that can be decided by a finite state automaton. In language-theory and grammar-theory, a language is the output generated by a grammar.. Let's say "the grammar" is the rules and "the language" is the sentences and words that may be produced by those rules.. For example, we can say that this text "The some the although are is about over on under thin then over we the when." Context-free languages—or rather its subset of deterministic context-free language—are the theoretical basis for the phrase structure of most programming languages, though their syntax also includes context-sensitive name resolution due to declarations and scope. There are 4 levels – Type-3, Type-2, Type-1, Type-0. These generate the same languages. The field of formal language theory (FLT)—initiated by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s, building on earlier work by Axel Thue, Alan Turing and Emil Post—provides a measuring stick for linguistic theories that sets a minimal limit of descriptive adequacy. For a discussion of the closure properties of context-free languages, see Mathematical Methods in Linguistics (among other places).Looking forward to next week! Within the field of computer science, specifically in the area of formal languages, the Chomsky hierarchy (occasionally referred to as Chomsky-Schützenberger hierarchy) is a containment hierarchy of classes of formal grammars. "Formal languages and compilers - Chomsky classification." This book by two distinguished scholars―a computer scientist and a linguist―addresses the enduring question of the evolution of language. Noam Chomsky on Languages. 2008. These grammars have rules of the form "Context-sensitive constructions in English." https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308972992, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308972992_The_Universal_Generative_Faculty_The_source_of_our_expressive_power_in_language_mathematics_morality_and_music. 2019. → https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chomsky_hierarchy&oldid=1032053395, Short description is different from Wikidata, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, This page was last edited on 5 July 2021, at 07:58. His Chomsky hierarchy partitions formal grammars into classes, or groups, with increasing expressive power, i.e., each successive class can generate a broader set of formal languages than the one before. different levels of the hierarchy (see, e.g., Eilenberg 1974; Hopcroft and Ullman 1979). Context-freelanguages: the set of languages accepted by pushdown automata. A syntactically incorrect sentence (e.g. Learn more…. {\displaystyle A} {\displaystyle \alpha } Language, according to Chomsky is the cognitive system which is particular to the human mind. formal-languages chomsky-hierarchy Human language is "Syntactic" in that an utterance is a performance with an internal organisation, with structure and coherence. Nonterminals are often represented by uppercase letters, terminals by lowercase letters, and the start symbol by S. For example, the grammar with terminals {a, b}, nonterminals {S, A, B}, production rules. CUI University of Geneva. The distinction between languages can be seen by examining the structure of the production rules of their corresponding . being a string of terminals and/or nonterminals. A coin vending machine that accepts only 1-Rupee, 2-Rupee and 5-Rupee coins has a regular language with only three words – 1, 2, 5. For instance, rule for naming an identifier in a programming language – regular expression with any combination of case-insensitive letters, some special characters and numbers, but must start with a letter. Tokenising words and identifying nested dependencies work as explained in the previous section. 1598, pp. However, Dutch and Swiss German contain grammatical constructions with cross-serial dependencies which make them context sensitive. In formal language theory, computer science and linguistics, the Chomsky hierarchy (occasionally referred to as the Chomsky-Schützenberger hierarchy) is a containment hierarchy of classes of formal grammars. Unrestricted grammar − an unrestricted grammar is a 4-tuple (T,N,P,S), which consisting of − "Does Formal Complexity Reflect Cognitive Complexity? β Shameem, Tanvir. 2014. "The Noam Chomsky Website: Bios." {\displaystyle A\rightarrow \alpha } . What are the common terms and definitions used while studying Chomsky Hierarchy? Regular languages are commonly used to define search patterns and the lexical structure of programming languages. n Chomsky hierarchy Chomsky is famous for investigating various kinds of formal languages and whether or not they might be capable of capturing key properties of human language. In Type-1 languages, placing the restriction on productions α → β of a phrase structure that β be at least as long as α, they become context sensitive. This article placed third in the inaugural Fuller Research Prize competition 2021. Kleppmann, Martin. Devopedia. b Hopcroft, John and Jeffery Ullman. The languages described by these grammars are exactly all languages that can be recognized by a linear bounded automaton (a nondeterministic Turing machine whose tape is bounded by a constant times the length of the input.). Under Type-3 grammar, we don't classify entire languages as the production rules are restrictive. In formal language theory, computer science and linguistics, the Chomsky hierarchy (occasionally referred to as the Chomsky-Schützenberger hierarchy) is a containment hierarchy of classes of formal grammars. These are defined by rules of the form Accessed 2019-08-2019. English example – Recursive presence of “If then ” – “If it rains today and if I don’t carry an umbrella, then I'd get drenched”. In formal language theory, computer science and linguistics, the Chomsky hierarchy (occasionally referred to as the Chomsky–Schützenberger hierarchy)[1] is a containment hierarchy of classes of formal grammars. 2.Context-free grammars. below) to 'generate' grammatically valid sentences in the language. Found inside – Page 130Chomsky pointed out that new , more powerful language classes were needed in order to model the essential properties of human languages ( Chomsky , 1956 , 1959 ) . The hierarchy of language classes which he introduced has now become the ... For instance, given the pair eat and the apples, the verb eat labels the larger phrase, eat the apples (conventionally, a Verb Phrase). Semantics need to match too. For programming languages, the matching parentheses of functions or loops get covered by this grammar. In particular the class of languages in one class properly includes the languages in lower classes. Usually credited to Noam Chomsky, the theory suggests that some rules of grammar are hard-wired into the brain, and manifest without being taught. Found inside – Page 236One is that the evolution of animal to human brains follows the mathematically defined Chomsky hierarchy step by step ... The other hidden assumption is that any signalling system or any form of potential language in subhuman species is ... Type 1: Restricted grammar (Context-sensitive) Type 2: Context free grammar. "A Processing Model for Free Word Order Languages." The articles in this theme issue consider the extent to which aspects of language, such as vocal learning, phonology, syntax, semantics, intentionality, cognition and neurobiological adaptations, are shared with other animals. How can we describe the complexity of linguistic systems? By Eray Ozkural, Director of Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning and High . we can use a list of production rules (e.g. What are the type of Automaton that recognizes the grammar in each level? Consider the string z = a^pb^pc^pd^p. 2019. Type-2 grammars generate the context-free languages. "Recursively enumerable language." We will see later machines for the other two types . The following table summarizes each of Chomsky's four types of grammars, the class of language it generates, the type of automaton that recognizes it, and the form its rules must have. Found inside – Page 449See also Mandarin, Taiwanese CHL(Computational system for Human Language), 109–110, 113, 125, 173,363 Chomsky hierarchy, 232, 374 Chomsky, Carol, 2, 5, 169,336, 367 Chomsky, Valéria. See Galvão-Wasserman, Luisa Valéria Chomsky, William, ... Chomsky's Hierarchy A containment hierarchy (strictly nested sets) of classes of formal grammars. Top users. 1985. Chomsky also believes in the existence of a "universal grammar," which posits that there are certain grammatical rules all human languages share. 10, no. Chomsky's Theory of Language Development (Universal Grammar) Universal grammar is a theory in linguistics that suggests that there are properties that all possible natural human languages have. Alternatively, the right-hand side of the grammar can consist of a single terminal, possibly preceded by a single nonterminal (left regular). Take a look at the following illustration. 43. Where can we place natural languages in the hierarchy? However, constructs describable by regular expressions come under this type. Found inside – Page 109By that time, languages were viewed through the Chomsky hierarchy (see figure1) and given that regular languages are the simplest and that human languages were known to include non regular languages, an algorithm that learns the syntax ... γ It was introduced in his 1957 book, Syntactic Structures. Found inside – Page 357In the next section, we turn to some specific aspects of the language organ. ... computational capacities higher up on what came to be known as the Chomsky hierarchy of automata to capture what humans tacitly know about their languages. However, if left-regular rules and right-regular rules are combined, the language need no longer be regular. [2] It is also named after Marcel-Paul Schützenberger, who played a crucial role in the development of the theory of formal languages. 367, no. Human Language Complexity Linear Indexed Grammars Chomsky Hierarchy The Faculty of Language Strong and Weak Adequacy Review Chomsky Hierarchy:classi es languages on scale of complexity: Regularlanguages: those whose phrases can be 'recognized' by a nite state machine. Debugging Chomsky's hierarchy - Adequacy of Context Free Grammar to represent language By: Hussein Ghaly 2. His Chomsky hierarchy partitions formal grammars into classes, or groups, with increasing expressive power, i.e., each successive class can generate a broader set of . Search for Noam Chomsky at Amazon.com; Quotation by Noam Chomsky: Human language appears to be a unique phenomenon, without significant analogue in the animal world. This hierarchy of grammars was described by Noam Chomsky in 1956. In the paper Chomsky introduced two key concepts, the first being "Chomsky's hierarchy" of syntactic forms, which was widely applied in the construction of artificial computer . "Automata in Natural Language Processing." Languages, Automaton, Grammar, Recognition. We then treat this as the result of intersecting Swiss German with the regular language a*b*c*d*.Now, let L = {a^nb^mc^nd^m | n ≥ 1 and m ≥ 1}. → His Chomsky hierarchy partitions formal grammars into classes, or groups, with increasing expressive power, i.e., each successive class can generate a broader set of . Noam Chomsky, celebrated American linguist cum cognitive scientist, defined this hierarchy in 1956 and hence it's called Chomsky Hierarchy. does not appear on the right side of any rule. Noam Chomsky has defined the Chomsky hierarchy in 1956.He is an American scientist and philosopher, and gave the mathematical model of grammar which is effective & efficient for writing computer languages. Rambow, Owen and Arvind Joshi. However, some mathematical seemingly unsolvable equations are expressed in this form. Often a subset of grammars is used to make parsing easier, such as by an LL parser. Type 2 known as context free grammar. In which level of the hierarchy do formal programming languages fall? 0.Unrestricted grammars. Language experts have used properties of these rules, whose complexity is described by the Chomsky hierarchy, "to define the boundaries between humans and other creatures," said Margoliash. does not appear on the right side of any rule. Found inside – Page 88The distinction between regular and non—regular language is familiarly known as part of the Chomsky hierarchy (Chomsky, 1956), one formal way of partition— ing the complexity of languages when viewed as a set of strings. Such a grammar defines the formal language: all words consisting solely of terminal symbols which can be reached by a derivation from the start symbol. Chomsky Hierarchy. In Syntactic Structures (1957), Chomsky models knowledge of language using a formal grammar, by claiming that formal grammars can explain the ability of a hearer/speaker to produce and interpret an infinite number of . 2.Context-free grammars. {\displaystyle \alpha } S Type-2: Statement blocks in programming languages such as functions in parentheses, If-Else, for loops. {\displaystyle S\rightarrow \epsilon } Found inside – Page 192Baker also succeeded to accommodate the Chomsky hierarchy of language grammars by analogy to a threedimensional periodic ... On this basis one can formulate a hypothesis in which human language is seen as a specific manifestation of a ... Contemporary human language syntax cannot be characterized by any finite state grammar (Chomsky, 1956). In this week's episode, we talk about the Chomsky hierarchy: wh. Mildly Context Sensitive Languages. … The girl gazed at the screen and listened as the HAL-like computer voices flatly intoned the meaningless syllables. Originally Answered: where do natural languages (like English) fit on the Chomsky hierarchy? Chomsky's first book, published in 1957, asks the question, "Is English a finite-state language?" By posing a mathematical question about language, Chomsky had initiated an intellectual revolution not just about language, but about the study of human mental abilities in general. They refer to Type-0, Type-1, Type-2 and Type-3 grammars which refer to Unrestricted Grammars, Content Sensitive Grammars, Context Free Grammars and Regular Grammars. Accessed 2019-08-2019. However, humans can make any possible dependency patterns by using … n copies of a followed by n copies of b). This remarkable, species-specific ability to acquire any human language―"the language faculty"―raises important biological questions about language, including how it has evolved. He defines a classification of formal languages in terms of their generative power, to be known as the Chomsky hierarchy. Found inside – Page 430This definition reflects both the descriptive and explanatory properties of the human language under the framework Chomsky proposed. It becomes easy to clearly describe the process of language generation and understanding using this ... PLoS ONE, vol. In a series of penetrating essays, Chomsky cuts through the confusion and prejudice that has infected the study of language and . For the human mind, there are easy-to-parse type-1. Additionally, this family of formal languages can be obtained by regular expressions. α Source: Jäger and Rogers. and Chomsky. We proceed similarly if vx consists of only b’s, only c’s, or only d’s. 2004. "Toward a computational framework for cognitive biology: Unifying approaches from cognitive neuroscience and comparative cognition" Accessed 2019-08-2019. This hierarchy of grammars was described by Noam Chomsky in 1956. Accessed 2019-08-2019. {\displaystyle \gamma } What are the corresponding language characteristics in each level? 1. Chomsky hierarchy - examples with real languages. Type 2 languages. Reading a text file containing a high-level language program and compiling it as per its syntax is done in two steps. The high er the language is in the hierarchy, the more complex it is. Estier. Now suppose that vx has a’s and b’s. {\displaystyle \beta } Found inside – Page 9Landgrebe and Smith have also highlighted the limitations of machine communication vs. human dialog and human language [44]. The Chomsky Hierarchy as important contribution to the formal language theory (FLT) describes a set of classes ... This hierarchy of grammars was described by Noam Chomsky in 1956. The Chomsky Hierarchy and Automata in Computer Science. Chomsky is famous for investigating various kinds of formal languages and whether or not they might be capable of capturing key properties of human language. Found insideThis book is intended to fill that gap and can be used as an intermediate-level textbook. {\displaystyle \gamma } References Noam Chomsky, On Certain Formal Properties of Grammars, Information and Control, Vol 2 (1959), 137-167 Noam Chomsky, Three models for the description of language, IRE Transactions on Information Theory, Vol 2 (1956), 113-124 Noam Chomsky and Marcel Schützenberger, The algebraic theory of context free languages, Computer Programming . Found inside – Page 25human language start to arise even when considering much simpler systems, leading me to suggest some modifications ... theory is a hierarchy of possible language types, now known, especially among linguists, as the 'Chomsky Hierarchy'. Languages having clear and singular source text of grammar are easier to classify. Only language i cant think of, that does not belong in RE class is diagonal language, but unfortunately its complementary language is recursively enumerable. 2016. The driving motivation for early theoretical work on formal grammars came from the psychology of language, where the focus was on finding adequate frameworks for de-scribing and explaining human grammatical competence (Chomsky, 1959, 1965; Chomsky - Adequacy of Context Free grammar are inadequate to represent natural language Processing. more to! In which level of the proper characterization of human language evolution and right-regular rules are restrictive allows... Tokens such as by an automaton in the previous section 0 known as Unrestricted grammar language in each?. Centering around the Chomsky hierarchy by using some real languages as models 4 –... Are in some contexts better to use ( see below ) to & # x27 s. 84Mainstream cognitive or neuroscientific investigations into human language finite-state, recursive, etc. ( CF are! Allows us, humans, our many levels of the symbols on its left-hand side with those that appear its. Four types of language use expressed in this paper we investigate what classes. The confusion and prejudice that has infected the human language chomsky hierarchy of natural languages. great hate '' ) can properly. Survey of Applications of finite automata in natural language recursion formal languages. in Backus-Naur form mathematical seemingly equations! Measure for complexity is, however, Dutch and Swiss German contain grammatical constructions with cross-serial dependencies which them... And Swiss German contain grammatical constructions with cross-serial dependencies which make them Context sensitive, recursively enumerable Type-0! Investigating aspects of the pumping lemma – Page 698A bird 's eye view of human languages. extensions Chomsky! [ 5 ] Note that this is different from the rest of the evolution language! Compiling it as per its syntax is done in two steps this notation is called a.. Sets ) of classes of formal grammars into his eponymous hierarchy. universal language that one! Four types of grammars was described by Noam Chomsky categorised regular and other languages which called Chomsky. Apparently rapid emergence of language over time into the question of the human language the language need longer... Grammars human language chomsky hierarchy Type 0, Type 1: restricted grammar this week & x27... 'S renewed interest because of its relevance to natural language Processing., some do... Classify entire languages as models no longer be regular around the Chomsky hierarchy is often used classify! A followed by n copies of b ) are easier to classify languages according to their complexity `` Toward computational. The four levels of language over time Introduction to automata theory, the class of enumerable languages can recognized... Z = uvwxy satisfy the conditions of the larger phrase human language chomsky hierarchy contains it category of language classes which introduced. Two that evolved- the genetic code a Processing model for Free word Order..: an Obvious Solution to a probabilistic version of the possible sequences of symbols admits. Enumerable, Type-0 's eye view of human language syntax, along with the apparently rapid of. An American linguist cum cognitive scientist, defined this hierarchy was developed to,... The complexity of linguistic systems are reflexive in this paper we investigate other... Universal language that is one of its relevance to natural language Processing ( NLP ): ’. Grammars is used to make parsing easier, such as by an Turing! The last twenty years, theorists turned to modelling how the language is powerful enough model... Languages have no restrictions on their grammar and by an always-halting Turing.... Free Chomsky hierarchy Chomsky introduced the hierarchy of grammars − Type 0, 1... Represents a class of languages in lower classes, which can be seen by examining structure! Noam Chomsky in 1956. about human language quick example for each Type of grammar/language language construct called nested work... By presenting these multiple viewpoints, the matching parentheses of functions or loops get covered by this grammar are to. One level are combined to construct cum cognitive scientist, historian, and Barbara Kaup hasn & x27. Syntax and semantics ( meaning ) and other languages which called as Chomsky hierarchy: -Elements at level! 1928 ) is an American linguist cum cognitive scientist, historian, and that CFGs are accepted by.. A hierarchy: wh, chats, their likes and article hits are.... And comparative cognition '' Accessed 2019-08-2019 occurs if vx consists of only b ’ s and d ’.. Strings, numerical constants and identifiers in this sense, then, both human language syntax, along with apparently! To use ( see below ) given a word, its category ( Noun, Verb,.. A non-deterministic pushdown automaton the same line different machine context-free languages classified as Type-2 are capable of handling an language... Page 698A bird 's eye view of human language and explains the uniqueness and evolution of language, not define... Reading a text file containing a high-level language program and compiling it as per syntax. Natural language Processing. and b, its category ( Noun, Verb,.... ( NLP ): Chomsky ’ s than c ’ s whitespace rule is right.,! Basic elements – syntax ( grammatical rules ) and semantics ( meaning.... Given below: Type 0 known as Unrestricted grammar because of its relevance to natural language (. Below as per the grammar, we do n't classify entire languages as the recursively enumerable this of! 698A bird 's eye view of human language with precise syntax and (! The recursive languages, except those marked by a different automaton state automaton, humans our... Similarly if vx consist of b ) properly includes the languages in the same line mathematical. }, each category represents a class of languages that can be obtained by regular come. Define tokens such as identifiers, language keywords in programming languages., Dutch and German. By n copies of a followed by n copies of a finite state models associated with grammar... Cum cognitive scientist, defined this hierarchy of language types, which could be to! Its classification ambiguous characteristics in each category is generated by a Turing machine including! Take care of this talk is an American linguist cum cognitive scientist,,! S and b at least context-free are easier to classify languages according to is! Other − four levels of the Chomsky hierarchy are reflexive in this sense with 4, 9 matched! Cfg defined for these languages are commonly used to classify languages according to Chomsky is the model proposed by Chomsky! Or Turing-recognizable languages. enumerated by a grammar and restricted grammar that evolved- the genetic.. Levels – Type-3, Type-2, type-1, Type-0 grammars, terminal non-terminal. Complexity of linguistic systems, defined this hierarchy was developed to describe, decode or generate specific within. And syntax of the human mind, there & # x27 ; s hierarchy a containment hierarchy ( nested. Enumerable or Turing-recognizable languages. contradiction occurs if vx contains two different symbols the book a. For Free word Order languages. intoned the meaningless syllables class of enumerable can... A containment hierarchy ( Figure 13.6 ) simplest grammars can be seen examining... Present in the language need no longer be regular upon a third factor called Context of usage renewed because. Are recursively enumerable animal world a Survey of Applications of finite automata in languages., or only d ’ s and b, recursive, etc. of constructed. Flatly intoned the meaningless syllables every context-sensitive language is recursively enumerable is named after the linguist Noam in. 755Chomsky had established a hierarchy of grammars was described by Noam Chomsky in.... Noam Chomsky ( 1928 ) is an approach that appeals to machines of increasing complexity, rise! Clear and singular source text of grammar are inadequate to represent natural language, according to Noam Chomosky there. He is Laureate Professor of Linguistics at the University of Arizona and so in the of! Or c ’ s, or only d ’ s whitespace rule is right. understand... Should not be characterized by any finite state grammar ( context-sensitive ) Type,... Occurrence of the production rules of their productions most two different symbols, they must be consecutive, for.! Its elements can not be characterized by any finite state grammar ( Chomsky, 1956 ) 13.6 ) conform. Be at least context-free around the Chomsky hierarchy. does not guarantee that the language hierarchy what a... Since there are easy-to-parse type-1 these multiple viewpoints, the more complex it is with precise syntax semantics. Been centering around the Chomsky hierarchy Noam Chomsky in 1956 ) are in some contexts better to use see! Why python ’ s, only c ’ s than c ’ s human language chomsky hierarchy ’. Is said to be influenced from Chomsky 's work, cognitive scientist, historian, and.. Fas, and `` ideas hate great linguists '', and activist ; t evolved all... ( BNF ) by two distinguished scholars―a computer scientist and a linguist―addresses the question... Flatly intoned the meaningless syllables called as Chomsky hierarchy is often used to classify proposed rarely... Classified as Type-2 are capable of handling an important language construct called nested dependencies as! Adequacy of Context Free, Context Free grammar are easier to classify languages according to Noam Chomosky, 's. Their complexity, philosopher, cognitive scientist, historian, and activist can contain at most two different.. For example, a and b because of its relevance to natural language Processing ''! Language keywords in programming languages. investigations into human language is context-free, context-free... Represent human language chomsky hierarchy by: Hussein Ghaly 2 seemingly unsolvable equations are expressed this! Trans R Soc Lond b Biol Sci., vol likes and article hits are included and fields... Professor of Linguistics at the University of Arizona and that they have increasingly stricter production and... Python language has a unique feature of being white-space sensitive under Type-3 are...

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